Grammar reference

Present tenses: Present simple

• We use the present simple tense to talk about regular or repeated actions, especially with ‘frequency adverbs’ like often or usually.

• We also use this tense for general truths that don’t change, and for some verbs that describe states rather than actions, for example seem or like.

Present tenses: Present continuous

• We use the present continuous tense to describe actions that are in progress at or around the time of speaking, or to talk about continuous change that isn’t finished yet.

Present tenses: State verbs

• Many verbs (sometimes called ‘stative’ verbs) can’t usually be used in a continuous tense because they describe states, not actions.

• Some state verbs can be used in both tenses, but with a different meaning, according to whether or not the verb is an action, for example think, have and look.

Present tenses: Present perfect (general)

• We make the present perfect (simple) tense with have + the past participle of the main verb.
• We make the present perfect (continuous) tense with have + the past participle of the verb be + the -ing form of the main verb.
• Sentences in the present perfect tense tell us more about the present than the past. For example, the meanings of the two sentences below are more or less the same.

Present perfect simple or continuous?: Simple

• We use the present perfect simple tense to talk about recent past experiences that are important at the time of speaking.

• We also use this tense to talk about general past experience when it doesn’t matter when the experience happened (the important thing is the experience itself).

Present perfect simple or continuous?: Continuous

• We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about actions that began in the past and have continued up to the present.

• We use the same tense to focus on the (unfinished) activity itself and emphasise that the action has been in progress throughout the period.

Infinitives and -ing forms: Infinitive

• We use the infinitive form (with to) after certain verbs like advise, want, ask and tell.
• When an object is needed, it goes between the verb and the infinitive.

• We also use the infinitive form to talk about purpose (the reason why you do something).

Infinitives and -ing forms: -ing form

• We use the -ing form after certain verbs like enjoy and like.

• We always use the -ing form after prepositions like in and by.

Infinitives and -ing forms: Verbs that change meaning

• Some verbs change their meaning when they are followed by the infinitive or -ing forms.

Past tenses: Using past tenses together

• We can use past tenses together, especially in stories, to talk about how actions are related.

Past tenses: All three together

• In more complicated sentences, we can use all three past tenses. The past simple tense does the main job of telling the story, and the other two give background information.

Modal verbs of probability and will: Possible

• We use the modal verbs might, may and could to say that something is possible.

• When we make negative statements about possibility, we can’t use couldn’t. This is because couldn’t has another meaning (wasn’t able to).
• We can make could, might or may more certain by adding the word well.

Modal verbs of probability and will: Certain

• We use will / won’t as a modal verb when we are certain about a future event.

• We make will less certain by adding the word probably.

Modal verbs of probability and will: Future statements using will

• We can use will in different ways to talk about the future.

Other ways of talking about the future

• We use the present continuous tense to talk about things that are definitely arranged.

• We use going to (do) when we have some evidence to make us certain about the future, or to talk about things that we intend or have decided to do (but are not necessarily completely arranged).

Direct and indirect questions: Direct questions

• In direct questions, the subject comes after the verb.
• Questions beginning with a question word like when or why ask for information.

• Questions without a question word ask for a yes or no answer.

Direct and indirect questions: Reported questions

• When we report questions, the subject comes before the verb, as in normal sentences.

• Changes like moving tenses into the past and changing pronouns are the same as in normal reported speech.
• When reporting questions without question words, we use either if or whether.

• We don’t use question marks with reported questions.

Negative questions

• We can use negative questions to show doubt, anger or surprise.

Question tags

• When the main sentence is positive, the tag is usually negative; when the main sentence is negative, the tag is usually positive.

• When the main verb is be, an auxiliary verb (e.g. have) or a modal verb (e.g. should), we repeat this in the tag.

• With all other verbs, we use the verb do / don’t or did / didn’t in the tag.

Reporting advice and orders: Rules

• We use the verb tell to report orders / instructions and warn to report negative advice.
• Tell, advise and warn are all followed by an object and the infinitive form of the verb (with to).
• When we use the word not, we put it between the object and the infinitive.
• After all three verbs, we can use that + a clause with a verb in a past tense.
• After advise and warn, we can use against + the -ing form of the verb.

Reporting advice and orders: examples

Causative structures: have / get something done

• We make ‘causative’ structures (to have / get something done) with the verbs have or get, followed by an object and a past participle.

• We use the structure to talk about actions we don’t do ourselves, but ask / tell / pay someone else to do for us.

Past mistakes and regrets

• To talk about things we did wrong in the past, we can use the verb wish + the past perfect tense.

• We can use the verb regret + the -ing form to express the same idea.

• To make negative sentences with regret, we put the word not before the -ing form.

• To criticise someone’s (or your own) past actions or decisions, we use should (not) + the infinitive form of the verb have + the past participle of the main verb (should / shouldn’t have done).

Verbs and prepositions

• Some verbs are always followed by the same preposition.

• After the preposition, we use the -ing form of the verb.

• Certain linking words or phrases also contain a preposition or act like prepositions. These are followed by the -ing form of the verb.

Past forms of modal verbs

• We make modal verbs refer to the past by adding have + the past participle of the main verb.

• Apart from referring to the past, the modal verbs keep their normal meanings.