Grammar — Relative clauses
- We use who(m), which, that, whose, where, when in relative clauses. We use them after nouns, or noun phrases, to describe or give information about a person, thing, possessions, places and time.
- There are two kinds of relative clauses: defining and non-defi ning.
- Defining clauses are necessary to give essential information about exactly which person/thing is being talked about in the sentence. Commas are never used.
- We can use that instead of who/which in defining clauses: The person who/that designed the house is a world-famous architect.
- The land where the house is built is extremely picturesque.
- When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, you can omit who/which/that:
- The house (which/that) the family has built is unique.
- When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, you cannot omit who/ which/that: It was the woman who/that had arrived earlier that day.
- There are two kinds of non-defi ning clauses:
- to give extra, non-essential information about the person or thing being talked about in the sentence: He had just arrived home with his wife, who had been working that afternoon.
- The building, which many considered ugly at first, is today a UNESCO World Heritage site.
- to add a comment about the first part of the sentence. We always use which in these clauses: People from all over the world visit the museum, which shows how deeply they are interested in learning about science.
- Non-defi ning clauses always need commas: on either side if it’s in the middle of the sentence, or before if it’s at the end.
- We never use that in non-defi ning clauses.
Grammar — Relative clauses: Prepositions in relative clauses
- Prepositions usually go at the end of the clause in conversational English. In more formal written and spoken contexts, they can go at the beginning, but must be followed by which (for things) or whom (for people):
- This house is more modern than the last house (which/that) they lived in. = This house is more modern than the last house in which they lived.
- The architect knew the couple (who/that) he had designed the house for. = The architect knew the couple for whom he had designed the house.
Grammar — Participle clauses
- We use a Present participle clause for an action or state that happened at the same time or after an event in the story:
- His system transformed their lives, enabling them to read and write. (because it enabled them)
- Participle and main clauses must have the same subject.
- A present (starting) or past (started) participle is often used to replace a relative clause:
- We use a Present participle to replace a relative clause with an active verb, e.g.
- There was a wire which attached the phone to the wall. = There was a wire attaching the phone to the wall.
- We use a Past participle to replace a relative clause with a passive verb, e.g.
- The copy which was made by the carbon paper was called the carbon copy. = The copy made by the carbon paper was called the carbon copy.